The Role of Architectural Design in Promoting the Social Objectives of Zoos
A Study of Zoo Exhibit Design with Reference to Selected Exhibits in Singapore Zoological Gardens
by Michael Graetz
NOTES
[1]
The Seletar Zoological Gardens Sub-Committee, Proposal for
the Development of the Seletar Zoological Gardens, (Singapore
1969), p. 3.
[2]
Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design
Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a
Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), pp. 12-19.
PART 1: PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ZOO DESIGN
CHAPTER 1.2 HISTORY OF ZOOS
[1]
Gustave Loisel,
Histoire des Menageries, (Paris, 1912)., p. 45: “Arrivés
à destination, les lions étaint
placés dans l’enceinte du palais royal ou lâchés
en demi-liberté dans vastes parcs spéciaux, plantés
de palmier, de vignes, et de fleurs, et que les auteurs grecs
appellent des Paradeisos. . . .”
[“Arrived at destination, the lions were placed in the enclosure of the royal palace or released
in half-freedom in vast special parks, planted with palm trees, vines, and flowers, and that the Greek
authors called Paradeisos. . . .”]
[7]
Edward T. Bennett,
The Tower Menagerie comprising the natural History of the Animals
contained in that establishment; with anecdotes of their characters
and History., (London, 1829), p. 154, cited by Loisel, op.
cit., p. 292.
[8]
Jon C. Coe, “The
Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits”, The Role of Zoos in
Biological Conservation: Past, Present and Future, 1992, AAZPA
Symposium, reprinted in ZOO ZEN vol. X, No. 1, August 1994, p. 31.
[13]
While it is
Victorian in spirit, its origin is earlier. Bacon wrote in Latin,
‘Nam et ipsa scientia potesta est'. Francis Bacon,
“Religious Meditations”, cited in: The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Quotations, 2nd ed. (paperback), (Oxford, 1981),
p. 14.
[17]
This was actually
discovered by Hermann Landois, founder of the Munster zoo: John
Coburn, Munster's Zoological Garden, International Zoo News,
Vol. 228, No. 132, Dec 1975, p. 17.
[21]Ibid., p.
520. The final parenthesis is misleading: the small Central Park
menagerie was renovated by its managers at the Bronx Zoo and
re-opened in 1988 as a fully-fledged modern zoo. “Children's
zoo” implies that it is for domestic animals. Cf. Sarah
Rossbach, Central Park Zoo, Landscape Architecture, January
1989, pp. 80 83, and James S. Russell, Zoo Story,
Architectural Record, February 1989, pp. 84 89.
[22]
Hancocks is more
scathing of this exhibit designed in 1934 by Berthold Lubetkin:
“under a preservation order, London Zoo has to retain an
exhibit in no way suited to housing live penguins”, David
Hancocks, Animals and Architecture, (London 1971), p. 129.
[23]
Jon C Coe, 1993
AAZPA School for Professional Management Development: Design
Directions 218, reprinted in ZOO ZEN, vol. X, No. 1, August
1994, p. 1.
[24]
It
is this author's understanding that ‘Gunite’, along with
‘Shotcrete’, was originally a proprietary term for a
method of pneumatically projecting or spraying concrete with the
difference being that water is added at the nozzle to a dry mix for
‘Gunite’ while ‘Shotcrete’ is pumped as a
liquid mix. Nowadays the two terms are used interchangeably with
‘Gunite’ being the most widely used term. ‘Gunite’
is thus used throughout this dissertation as the generic term for
either method.
[25]
David Hancocks,
Animals and Architecture, (London, 1971).
[26]
G[rant] R. Jones,
D[ennis] E. Paulson and J[on] C. Coe, Zoo Design Methodologies
According to Bioclimatic and Zoogeographic Principles, Zoo
Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 155.
[27]
Grant R. Jones, Jon
C. Coe & Dennis E. Paulson, Woodland Park Zoo: Long Range
Plan, Development Guidelines and Exhibit Scenarios, (Seattle
Washington, 1976).
[28]
Coe, 1993 AAZPA
School for Professional Management Development, p. 3, and Coe,
The Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits, p.38. Coe also credits
the North Carolina Zoological Park.
[34]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 82.
[35]
Coe, The
Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits, p.39.
CHAPTER 2.1 THE NATURE OF THE MOAT
[1]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 88.
[2]
Ted Finlay, Lawrence
R. James and Terry L. Maple, People’s Perceptions of
Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment, Env. and Behav., vol.
20 no. 4 July 1988. Not only does this study show that naturalistic
exhibits per se receive (somewhat) greater visitor approval, but
that if visitors discern the slightest visual cue of artificiality
in an otherwise naturalistic exhibit, the exhibit is seen as a
‘tame’ zoo enclosure.
[3]
Polakowski, op.
cit. p. 14. This is also supported by the ‘Primate
Kingdom’ Case Study, this dissertation, which found that
visitors underestimate the actual widths of visible water moats by
around one third to a half. The moat that succeeded best had
aquatic vegetation on the banks which could visually be mistaken for
solid ground.
[4]
The concealed dry
moat in Singapore Zoo referred to earlier achieved this effect by
having no distinct edge on either side. The viewer's line of sight
always forms a tangent to the slope of the nearer side, like the
Eighteenth Century ha ha or sunken fence.
[5]
A. P. G. Michelmore,
Uses of Plants in Zoos, Int. Zoo Yb. vol. 29, 1990, p. 32.
[6]
David Shepherdson,
Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in
Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), p. 164.
[8]
“Non-lethal”
needs qualification. Voltages are often much greater than domestic
cattle fences and electricians require considerable zoological
advice for the placement, voltage and appropriateness in every
situation.
[9]
James Fisher, Zoos
of the World: The story of Animals in Captivity, (Garden City,
New York 1967), p. 166.
[10]
See for example: R.
Bigalke, The Use of Moats in Zoological Gardens, Int. Zoo Yb.
2, 1960, pp. 62-68; Ronald T. Reuther, Barrier Dimensions for
Lions, Tigers, Bears and Great Apes, Int. Zoo Yb. 16, 1976, pp.
217-222; C[hristoph] Scherpner, Moated and Fenced Enclosures at
Frankfurt Zoo, Int. Zoo Yb. 11, 1971, pp. 59-62; J. C. Wears,
Moats and Ditches at London and Whipsnade Zoos, Int. Zoo Yb.
19, 1979, pp. 274-280.
[12]
See H. Hediger, The
Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses, (New
York 1968), for a discussion on the process of domestication in zoo.
[13]
Seeing animals
which are not bothered by this proximity can conveys a message of
respect owed when the animal appears relaxed and in command of its
own territory—the behavioural distinction for visitors between
‘free’ and ‘caged’ animals.
CHAPTER 2.2 EXHIBIT PLANTING
[1]
Trevor Poole, The
Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[2]
Philip J. Craul,
Urban Soil in Landscape Design, (New York), p 6.
[3]
Robin B. Foster,
Heterogeneity and Disturbance in Tropical Vegetation, in
Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective, eds.
Michael E. Soule and Bruce A. Wilcox, (Sunderland, Massachusetts
1980), p. 76.
[4]Ibid., pp.
75-92. Rates of successional turnover vary from fifty to one
hundred years in exposed forests to more than two hundred years in
sheltered areas.
[5]
Mark K. Wourms, Zoo
Exhibits and the Role of Zoo Horticulture, Int. Zoo Yb. 29,
1990, p. 3.
[6]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 139.
[8]
Alagappasamy
Chelliah, personal communication.
[9]
E. J. H. Corner,
Wayside Trees of Malaya, vol. 1 (Singapore, 1952), p 153.
[10]
Hsuan Keng, Orders
and Families of Malayan Seed Plants, (Singapore 1969), p.7.
[11]
Virginia Wall,
Streamside: An Endangered Species Garden, Int., Zoo Yb. 29,
p. 29.
CHAPTER 2.3 MESH AND FENCE BARRIERS
[1]
Bernard Harrison, A
Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the
Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore
1986), pp. 86-92.
[2]
"For those
animals in which any barrier (moat, fence, or wall) is visible . . .
the animals are rated equally restricted, tame, and passive as their
cage zoo counterparts.” Ted Finlay, Lawrence R. James, Terry
L. Maple, People's Perceptions of Animals: The Influence of Zoo
Environment, Env. and Behav., vol. 20, No. 4 July 1988, p. 520.
[4]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 13.
[5]
Lyn de Alwis dissents from this view, however. (Personal communication).
[6]
Catherine Ingraham, I Want to Talk . . ., Inland Architect, 1989, Sept.-Oct.,
vol. 33 No. 5, p.54.
CHAPTER 2.4 EXHIBITRY: TOOLS OF HABITAT SIMULATION
[1]
Peter Stevens,
Introduction, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 3.
[2]
James E. Lovelock,
Elements, in: Gaia: An Atlas of Planetary Management, Dr
Norman Myers ed., (Garden City, New York, 1984), p. 100.
[3]
Bernard Harrison, A
Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the
Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore
1986), p. 71.
[4]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 82.
[5]
Barbara Brady, Jack
Huelsman and Edward Maruska, Cats in Context: Cincinnati Zoo Cat
Exhibit, Int. Zoo Yb. 29, (1990), pp. 171,174.
[6]
Trevor Poole, The
Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[7]
Donald W. Jackson,
Landscaping in Hostile Environments, Int. Zoo Yb. 29, (1990),
pp. 10-15.
[9]
Bernard Harrison,
The Design of Primate Islands at the Singapore Zoological
Gardens, Zoo Design 3 (Paignton, U. K. 1982), pp. 139-147;
Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles
Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo,
(Singapore 1986), pp. 124-131.
[10]
Markowitz and
Hancocks have been principal proponents of the alternative
approaches: Hal Markowitz and Victor J. Stevens, eds., Behavior
of Captive Wild Animals, (Chicago 1978); Markowitz, Behavioral
Enrichment in the Zoo, (New York 1982); David Hancocks,
Naturalistic Solutions to Zoo Design Problems, Zoo Design 3,
(Paignton, U. K. 1982), pp. 166-173.
[11]
The two terms are
used here for naturalistic and mechanistic approaches respectively,
but they are often confusingly used interchangeably.
[13]
David Shepherdson,
Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in
Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), pp. 156-168.
[14]
Lars Lunding
Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), pp. 71-85.
[15]
R. J. P. O'Grady,
G. Law, H. Boyle, A. MacDonald and J. Johnstone, Himalayan Black
Bear Selenarctos thibetanus Exhibit at Glasgow Zoo, Int.
Zoo Yb. 29 (1990), pp. 233-240.
[16]
Alagappasamy
Chelliah, personal communication.
[3]
Trevor Poole, The
Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[4]
Serrell, op.
cit., p. 412., calls these ‘experience-driven model’
and ‘educational teaching model’ respectively.
[5]
Lars Lunding
Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 73: Anderson states, on the
other hand, that the scope for interpretation is only limited by
“isolated” enclosure design. Ibid., p. 71.
[7]
Lyn M. Milan and
Mark K. Wourms, The World of Birds at the Bronx Zoo/Wildlife
Conservation Park: Visitor Expectations and Experiences, Int.
Zoo Yb. 32, 1993, p. 209.
[8]
Jerome V.
d'Agostino, Ross J. Loomis and Betsy Webb, Attitudes, Beliefs,
Intended Behaviors, and Exhibit Evaluation, Visitor Studies 4,
(Jacksonville, Alabama 1992), p. 92.
[9]
Jan Hatley,
Building In the Message., Zoo Design 4, (Paignton U. K. 1992)
p. 62.
[10]
John A. Sanford
and Ted Finlay, The Effect of Exhibit Signage on Visitor
Behavior, EDRA 19, 1988, p. 247.
[11]
Stephen Bitgood,
Donald Patterson and Arlene Benefield, Exhibit Design and Visitor
Behavior: Empirical Relationships, En. and Behav., vol. 20, No.
4, July 1988, p. 475.
[13]
J. Anthony
Schibley, Hold That Thought: Creating a Cutting Edge Interpretive
Design Package that Visitors will Remember, Zoo Design 4,
(Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 144.
[14]
Collectively, these
avenues of education are often called non-formal because they take
place outside formal classroom situations.
[15]
Jon C. Coe, “Design
and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real,” Zoo
Biology, 4:2 1985, p. 204.
[16]
David Churchman and
Nancy Hanson, Fundamental Issues in Zoo Education: A Review of
the Literature, IZE paper, (Melbourne 1986), p. 21.
CHAPTER 2.6 SHELTER
[1]
Beverly Serrell, The
Evolution of Educational Graphics in Zoos, Env. and Behav. vol.
20, no. 4, July 1988, p. 399.
[2]
Singapore Zoo has,
however, built several air-conditioned shelters for visitors in
recent years; but these are exceptions and should not detract from
the case made here for the importance of natural ventilation.
[3]
Pedro Trebbau,
Tropical Zoo Problems, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton, U. K. 1977),
p. 138.
[4]
A. Djakoure, The
Effects of the Hot, Wet Tropical Climate on Zoos: The Case of the
National Zoological Park of Abidjan (Ivory Coast), Zoo Design 2
(Paignton, U. K. 1977), p. 135.
[5]
John W. Toovey, Hot
Country Zoos, Zoo Design 3 (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 125.
[6]
Bernard Harrison, A
Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the
Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore
1986), p. 173.
CHAPTER 2.7 HABITAT LIGHTING
[1]
C[hristoph] Scherpner, Artificial Climate in Animal Exhibits: Animal Needs
and Technical Solutions, in Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K.
1982), p. 65. Dr Scherpner discusses some aspects of the role light
plays in animals' lives, including warmth, ultra-violet radiation,
and as a time regulator.
[2]
Christoph Scherpner,
Artificial Lighting, transcript of a discussion, in Zoo
Design 2 (Paignton 1977), p. 124.
[3]
The term,
‘fluorescent’ strictly describes any light source
produced by excitation of phosphors coating the glass of a discharge
lamp, not necessary the familiar fluorescent tube. This covers a
very wide range of lamps which with various optics and output
spectra and can have quite good focusing and colour rendering
properties.
[4]
Christoph Scherpner
in Artificial Lighting, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton 1977), p.
124, states in a comment attributed to him that ‘high pressure
lamps’ “showed up the birds and the decorations better”
while fluorescent light would “kill quite a lot of the colours
of birds.” Whether either is natural is not questioned;
however, as Simon Corder mentions, humans tend to see colours as
they are supposed to be: “in most situations we wish to see
white as white; and so we do.” “Report on Lighting the
Asian Night Safari” (unpublished report for Singapore Zoo,
1988), p. 5.
[5]
This is done with a
white ceiling merging seamlessly with a white or mural-painted back
wall and even illumination. An example of this does exist in
Singapore in the penguin display of Jurong Bird Park.
[6]
Simon Corder, Asian
Night Safari: Lighting Report, (Singapore 1988), p. 10.
[7]
George. S. Cansdale,
Modern Lighting for Zoos, in Zoo Design 2, (1977), pp.
19-123.
[8]
Attributed to Roy E.
Calvin in Artificial Lighting, Zoo Design 2, (1977), p. 124.
[9]
Simon Corder, op.
cit., Appendix B. The main body of this report also summarises
these physical and biological aspects quite thoroughly.
[15]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 16.
[16]
Polakowski,
(Ibid.), cites only the use of spotlights mounted on the
monorail at San Diego Wild Animal Park and calls for additional
research into concepts and techniques for night lighting, among
other uses of artificial light.
PART 3: ARCHITECTURE AND VISITOR BEHAVIOUR IN ZOOS
CHAPTER 3.1 VISITOR BEHAVIOUR
[1]
Allan W. Wicker, An
Introduction to Ecological Psychology, (Cambridge 1984).
[2]
Bruce Allsop, A
General History of Architecture, (London 1971), p. 223-228.
[3]
Jon Lang, Charles
Burnette, Walter Moleski, David Vachon, Designing for Human
Behaviour, (Stroudsburg, USA, 1974), p. 5.
[4]
Ross J. Loomis, The
Countenance of Visitor Studies in the 1980's, Visitor Studies 1,
(1988), p. 13.
[6]
Ted Finlay, Lawrence
R James and Terry Maple, People's Perception of Animals: The
Influence of Zoo Environment, (1988), Env. and Behav., vol. 20,
no. 4, pp. 508 528.
[7]
Stephen Bitgood,
Donald Patterson and Arlene Benefield, Exhibit Design and Visitor
Behavior: Empirical Relationships, (1988), Env. and Behav., vol.
20, no. 4, p. 489.
[8]
Janaea Martin and
Joseph O'Reilly, Contemporary Environment-Behavior Research in
Zoological Parks, Env. and Behav., Vol. 20, no. 4, (1988), p.
394.
[4]
Edward J. Ruddell,
et al, The Psychological Utility of Visual Penetration in Near
View Forest Scenic beauty Models, Env. and Behav., Vol. 21
no. 4, Jul. 1989, pp. 393 412.
[5]
Jon C. Coe, Design
and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real, Zoo Biology,
Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208.
[6]
Ted Finlay, Lawrence
R James and Terry Maple, People's Perception of Animals: The
Influence of Zoo Environment, 1988, Env. and Behav., vol. 20,
no. 4, p. 526.
[7]
Stephen Verderber,
et al, Elderly Persons' Appraisal of the Zoological Environment,
Env. & Behav., 20:4 July 1988, p. 503.
CHAPTER 3.3 ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS
[1]
Anthony C. Antoniades, Poetics of Architecture: Theory of Design, (New
York 1990), p. 4.
[3]
Maggie Keswick, The
Chinese Garden: History, Art and Architecture, (London, 1978)
[4]
David Hancocks,
Seeking to Create Illusions of Wild Places: Master Planning
Guidelines for Melbourne Zoo, Parts I, II and III, Landscape
Australia, 3/89, 4/89 and 1/90.
[6]
S. Campbell, “A
New Zoo?”, Zoonooz 55:9, pp. 4 7. Cited in: Joyce
Shettel Neuber, “Second and Third Generation Zoo
Exhibits: A Comparison of Visitor, Staff and Animal Responses”,
Env. and Behav. 20:4 July 1988, p. 453.
[7]
Jon C. Coe, Design
and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real, Zoo Biology,
Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208, as noted earlier, relates zoo
design to a number of psychological principles.
[8]
Bernard Harrison,
The Evolution of Zoological Gardens, Proc. 46th Ann. Conf.
IUDZG, (Singapore 1991). Antibiotics are particularly credited with
the easing concern over maintaining sterile conditions.
[9]
Bernard Harrison and
Michael Graetz, Designing a Naturalistic Environment at the
Singapore Zoological Gardens, Architecture Journal 1986, eds. Lo
Ching Ning, T. K. Sabapathy, Foo Ah Fong, (Singapore 1986), pp. 2 6.
[10]
Kenneth J.
Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann
Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 102.
[11]
David Shepherdson,
Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in
Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), p. 158.
[12]
Catherine Ingraham,
I Want to Talk . . ., Inland Architect, 1989, Sept.-Oct.,
vol. 33 No. 5, p.53.
[1]
Michael Robinson
quotes Desmond Morris: “‘The [animal] non-specialists, .
. . are forced to live the lives of opportunists, forever
investigating, always on the move.’” Michael
H. Robinson, “Homage to Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz: Is
Classical Ethology Relevant to Zoos?”, Zoo Biology, 8:3
1989, p 220.
[2]
The chief source
consulted on the biology of Polar bears is: Grzimek's
Encyclopedia of Mammals English Language Edition, 1990, s.v.
“True Bears” by Fred Kurt. However, Duplaix and Simon
state that males do not den in winter unless the weather becomes
very severe, which possibly explains the ability of the bears to go
without hibernation in zoos. Nicole Duplaix and Noel Simon, World Guide to Mammals, (New York 1976), p. 161.
[3]
Heini Hediger, Wild
Animals in Captivity, (New York 1964), p. 147.
[4]
Bernard Harrison,
Polar Bears in a Tropical Climate, Zoo Design 3, (Paignton,
U. K. 1982), p. 117.
[5]
Harrison, Mammal
Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, p. 141, points out that this is
particularly so in the tropics and the mistake should not be
repeated.
[6]Ibid., and
Jon C. Coe, Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience
Real, Zoo Biology, Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208.
[8]
". . . seals
and walruses are not frequenters of blue swimming pools in the
wild.” Johnpaul Jones, “Captive Pinnipeds Without
Blue Swimming Pools”, AAZPA 1986 Annual Conference
Proceedings, p.343.
[9]
Alan Hedge and Karen
L. Jamison, “Zoo Exhibit Evaluation: A Multi user
Strategy”, AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings 1990,
pp. 536 543.
[11]
For example, Wolf
and Tymitz's study entitled Do giraffes ever sit?, involving
three hundred interviews over six months in National Zoo,
Washington. Summarized in: Robert L. Wolf and Barbara L. Tymitz,
Studying Visitor Perceptions of Zoo Environments: A Naturalistic
View, Int. Zoo Yb., vol. 21, ed. P. J. S. Olney, (London 1981),
pp. 49 53.
[12]
David Churchman and
Charles Bossler, Visitor Behavior at Singapore Zoo, AAZPA
Regional Conf. Proc., 1990, pp.320 326.
CHAPTER 4.3 PYGMY HIPPO CASE STUDY
[1]
The Seattle-based
zoo design firm, Sherman Yañez and Mikami, design consultant:
Roger Sherman.
[2]
Such a concept exists in Cleveland Zoo, Ohio where the (Nile) hippos can circulate
around a central island.
CHAPTER 4.5 'PRIMATE KINGDOM' CASE STUDY
[1]
See Section 1.1 of
this dissertation and Jon C. Coe “Design and Perception:
Making the Zoo Experience Real,” Zoo Biology, 4:197-208
(1985).
[2]
David Churchman and
Charles Bossler, “Visitor Behaviour at Singapore Zoo”,
AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings 1990, pp.320 326.
CHAPTER 4.7 NIGHT SAFARI CASE STUDY
[1]
Bernard Harrison and
Michael Graetz, The Night Safari - Singapore, Int. Zoo Yb.
(in publication 1995).
[2]
Pedro Trebbau,
Tropical Zoo Problems, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton, U. K. 1977),
p. 140.
PART 5 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 5.1 THE RESPONSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE ZOO DESIGNER
[1]
David Hancocks,
Animals and Architecture, (London 1971), p. 179. This
co-operation between architect and zoo is exemplified by the
collaboration that resulted in the master plan for Woodland Park
Zoo.
[2]
Jeremy Cherfas, Zoo
2000: A Look Beyond the Bars, (London 1984), p. 38.
[3]
Bernard Harrison, A
Study Of The Planning And Design Principles Of Mammal Exhibits In A
Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), p. 24.
[4]
The term is taken
from: Mary Midgely, Animals and Why They Matter: A Journey around
the Species Barrier, (Harmondsworth, England 1983). This book
discusses the philosophical background to the homo-centric versus
bio-centric exhibit design referred to here.
[6]
Sources such as the
International Zoo Yearbooks and AAZPA conference papers can be mined
for such information, but much sifting is required.
[7]
Sarah Rossbach,
Central Park Zoo, Landscape Architecture (1989), Jan, 80 83,
and James S, Russell, Zoo story, Architectural Record,
(1989), Feb, 84 89.
CHAPTER 5.2 THE APPLICATION OF DESIGN TO ZOOS
[1]
Jean Wineman and
Yoon Kyung Choi, A Diachronic Understanding of the Spatial
Configuration of a Zoo and its Influence on the Transmission of
Knowledge, EDRA 21, (1990), pp. 94-104.
[2]
Trevor Poole, The
Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[3]
Jan Hatley, Building
In the Message, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), pp.
62-65.
[4]
J. Anthony Schibley,
Hold That Thought: Creating a Cutting Edge Interpretive Design
Package that Visitors Will Remember, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U.
K.
1992), pp. 144-146.
[5]
Priscilla Meckley,
Master Planning: A Lifetime Full of Experience, Zoo Design 4,
(Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 20.
[6]
David L. Manwarren,
New Exhibitry: A contractor's Perspective, Zoo Design 4
(Paignton U. K.), p. 125.
[7]
Lars Lunding
Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told,
Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 79.
CHAPTER 5.3 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND SUMMING UP
[1]
Pushp Kumar, Biological Parks in India - Evolution and Trends: An Overview,
paper presented at the 46th Ann. Conf., IUDZG (Singapore 1991) p. 11.
APPENDIX A: SURVEY DATA
[]
Scores for the
bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS
to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average
values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of
dimensions.
[]
Scores for the
bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS
to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average
values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of
dimensions.
[]
Scores for the
bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS
to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average
values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of
dimensions.